Analysis of W. B. Yeats’s Poem ‘The Second Coming’ (A2.1)

Name: Rajeshvariba Rana

Roll No: 16

Semester: 2 (Batch 2022-24)

Enrolment number: 4069206420220023

Paper No: 106

Paper name: The 20th Century Literature: 1900 to WWII

Paper code: 22399

Topic: Analysis of  W. B. Yeats’s Poem ‘The Second Coming’

Submitted to: Smt. S.B. Gardi, Department of English, MKBU

Email Address: rhrana148@gmail.com

Analysis of  W. B. Yeats’s Poem ‘The Second Coming'

W. B. Yeats:

William Butler Yeats was born on June 13, 1865, in Dublin, Ireland. John Butler Yeats, his father, was a lawyer and artist, and his mother, Susan Pollexfen Yeats, came from a wealthy family. Yeats spent a large part of his childhood in County Sligo, where he became interested in Irish folklore and the supernatural.

Yeats enrolled at the Metropolitan School of Art in Dublin in 1884 to study painting. He also started writing poetry and joined the Irish Literary Society. He met poet and playwright George Russell (writing under the pen name AE) in 1887, and the two became close friends and collaborators.

Yeats's first book of poetry, "The Wanderings of Oisin and Other Poems," was published in 1891. The collection drew on Irish mythology and legends and established Yeats as a leading figure in the Irish Literary Revival. He continued to write poetry throughout his life, publishing numerous collections, including "The Wind Among the Reeds" (1899), "In the Seven Woods" (1903), and "The Tower" (1928).

In 1899, Yeats co-founded the Irish National Theatre Society, which later became the Abbey Theatre. He wrote many plays for the company, including "The Countess Cathleen" (1892), "The Land of Heart's Desire" (1894), and "Cathleen Ni Houlihan" (1902). His plays often explored themes of Irish nationalism, Irish folklore, and the occult.

Yeats was also interested in mysticism and the supernatural, and he became involved in the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, a secret society that practised ritual magic. His interest in these subjects is reflected in his later poetry, which often deals with the occult and esoteric themes.

In 1917, Yeats married Georgie Hyde-Lees, with whom he had two children. He also became involved in Irish politics and was a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood. In 1922, he was appointed to the Irish Senate and served until his death in 1939.

Yeats was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1923, becoming the first Irishman to receive the honour. He died on January 28, 1939, in Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, France, and was buried in Drumcliffe Churchyard in County Sligo, Ireland. Today, he is regarded as one of the most important poets of the 20th century and a major figure in Irish literature and culture.

Yeats remains a highly regarded and influential figure in modern literature, and his work continues to be studied and celebrated around the world.

William Butler Yeats was a prolific writer, and his body of work includes poetry, plays, essays, and other writings.

List of Yeats’s works:

Poetry:

"The Wanderings of Oisin and Other Poems" (1891)

"The Countess Kathleen and Various Legends and Lyrics" (1892)

"The Celtic Twilight" (1893)

"In the Seven Woods" (1903)

"Responsibilities" (1914)

"The Wild Swans at Coole" (1919)

"Michael Robartes and the Dancer" (1921)

"The Tower" (1928)

"The Winding Stair and Other Poems" (1933)

"Last Poems" (1938)

Plays:

"The Countess Cathleen" (1892)

"The Land of Heart's Desire" (1894)

"Cathleen ni Houlihan" (1902)

"The Hour Glass" (1904)

"On Baile's Strand" (1904)

"Deirdre" (1907)

"The Green Helmet" (1910)

"The Only Jealousy of Emer" (1919)

"The Dreaming of the Bones" (1919)

Essays:

"The Celtic Revival" (1892)

"The Symbolism of Poetry" (1900)

"Ideas of Good and Evil" (1903)

"The Irish Dramatic Movement" (1903)

"Per Amica Silentia Lunae" (1918)

"A Vision" (1925)

Other writings:

"Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry" (1888)

"John Sherman and Dhoya" (1891)

"Stories of Red Hanrahan" (1897)

"The Secret Rose" (1897)

"Discoveries" (1907)

"The King of the Great Clock Tower" (1934)

Theme:

The central theme of W.B. Yeats' poem "The Second Coming" is an apocalyptic vision of a world out of control, as well as a warning that a new order may emerge from the chaos.

The poem's first stanza paints a bleak picture of the world, with the falcon and falconer symbolising the breakdown of traditional order as the bird flies away beyond the human master's control. The centre can no longer withstand the pressure, and chaos looms, represented by images of anarchy, violence, and disorder.

In the second stanza, Yeats invokes the image of a "rough beast" that is slowly making its way toward Bethlehem, waiting to be born. This beast is a symbol of the new order that will emerge from the chaos and destruction of the old world. The speaker warns that the beast is not benign, but instead represents a threat to traditional values and beliefs.

The theme of W.B. Yeats' poem "The Second Coming" is about the cyclical nature of history, the breakdown of traditional order, and the potential for a new and destructive order to emerge from the chaos. The poem suggests that the world is in crisis, and that the old order is breaking down, leading to anarchy and violence. The speaker warns that a "rough beast" is approaching, symbolising the emergence of a new order, which is not necessarily benevolent or in keeping with traditional values.

The poem reflects Yeats' sense of the turmoil and upheaval of his time, marked by the aftermath of World War I, the rise of fascism and totalitarianism, and the collapse of traditional social and moral values. The poem suggests that history is cyclical and that the old order is always vulnerable to collapse and destruction, leading to the potential for a new and destructive order to emerge. The poem's overall message is one of warning and caution, as the speaker recognizes the fragility of human civilization and the potential for it to collapse in the face of powerful historical forces.

Poetic Devices :

Imagery: 

The poem makes use of vivid and evocative images to convey a sense of chaos, destruction, and impending doom. Examples include "the falcon cannot hear the falconer," "mere anarchy is loosed upon the world," and "The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere / The ceremony of innocence is drowned.

Symbolism: 

The falcon and falconer symbolise the breakdown of traditional order, while the "rough beast" represents the emergence of a new and destructive order. Bethlehem symbolises the birthplace of Christianity and the possibility of redemption.

Metaphor: 

The poem uses metaphor to compare the breakdown of traditional order to the widening gyre of a falcon, as well as to compare the new and destructive order to a "rough beast."

Allusion: 

The poem alludes to the biblical story of the birth of Christ in Bethlehem, as well as to the idea of a "second coming" or apocalyptic event.

Repetition: 

The phrase "Things fall apart" is repeated twice in the poem, emphasising the theme of the breakdown of traditional order.

Rhyme: 

The poem uses a loose rhyme scheme of ABAB for the first three stanzas, and then a more irregular rhyme scheme for the final stanza.

Gyre:

“Turning and turning in the widening gyre

The falcon cannot hear the falconer;”

A gyre is a spiral cone shape and part of Yeats's complicated view of mysterious historical forces. As one gyre of history gives way, another one takes over. 

Yeats is thinner in his writings than in his talk; very little of himself goes into his literature.

Similarly it may be said very truly that he is " thinner " in his verse than in his prose.

Yeats employs in the first line (denoting circular motion and repetition) a nod to Yeats’s mystical belief that history repeats itself in cycles.

Yeats regrets that the man has become from the restraints of morality , religion and discipline. 

It is preoccupied with image , symbol , imagination , poetic process , and the role of the poet . It is more , however , than a disquisition on poetry , although it is less than a key to total understanding of the poems . Sometimes bewildering and arbitrary but always absorbing , the book does manage to lock together the fragments of Yeats ' vision of the universe.

Yeats incorporates his own view of history and future through the image of the " gyres " , cone - shaped spirals that intersect so that each gyre's narrowest point is contained inside the widest part of the other.

Spiritus Mundi:

The second part sounds Christian in the beginning , but develops an image whose source is not Scripture but Spiritus Mundi , and which concerns something like an Egyptian Sphinx , and the passing of Christ in his favour.

Spiritus Mundi is the term he used for this collective unconscious.

With its animal body and human head, perhaps this beast says something about the "nightmare" to come. Though humans have tried to civilise themselves and improve their world, perhaps their more beastly animal nature has only been hidden, not defeated.

This type of hybrid creature is quite common in various mythologies, and is meant to convey a kind of freakishness, a sense of nature somehow going wrong.

Thus the image symbolises the coming historical phase of evil.

But the Beast is not imitating Christ's Second Coming at all . It is imitating his first coming.

Bethlehem:

Christians believe that Bethlehem is the birthplace of Jesus Christ, the son of God. It is situated in the region that is today known as Palestine.

Thus Yeats can describe the second coming with an exhilaration not unlike the excitement and sense of pending rebirth which has accompanied our horror at the events which have destroyed American complacency in the last few years. 

The Second Coming is the Christian idea that Jesus will someday return to the earth and save those who are worthy.

It was written soon after the end of World War I, during which millions of people died in battle and millions more from its fallout. This immense devastation was a stark reminder of humanity's capacity for self-destruction. 

Conclusion:

"The Second Coming" by W.B. Yeats is a powerful and evocative poem that reflects the early twentieth century's sense of turmoil and upheaval. To convey its themes of the cyclical nature of history, the breakdown of traditional order, and the potential for a new and destructive order to emerge from the chaos, the poem employs a variety of poetic devices, including vivid imagery, powerful symbolism, and effective use of metaphor, allusion, repetition, rhyme, and enjambment. The poem warns of the fragility of human civilization and the need to be vigilant against the forces that threaten to destroy it through its vivid and haunting language.

(Words 1700 ; Images 04)

Works Cited

Carberg, Joan S. “‘A Vision’ by William Butler Yeats.” Daedalus, vol. 103, no. 1, 1974, pp. 141–56. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20024196. Accessed 27 Mar. 2023.

Hexter, George J. “THE PHILOSOPHY OF WILLIAM BUTLER YEATS.” Texas Review, vol. 1, no. 3, 1916, pp. 192–200. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43465700. Accessed 27 Mar. 2023.

Mamta. “A Study of Indian Philosophical Thoughts in W.B. Yeats' Poetry.” IJESC, March 2021, https://ijesc.org/upload/27d404039c911aae401e0331cd567143.A%20Study%20of%20Indian%20Philosophical%20Thoughts%20in%20W.B.%20Yeats%20Poetry.pdf. Accessed 27 March 202.

Ransom, John Crowe. “Yeats and His Symbols.” The Kenyon Review, vol. 1, no. 3, 1939, pp. 309–22. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4332091. Accessed 27 Mar. 2023.

Yeats, William Butler, and WB Yeats. “The Second Coming by William Butler Yeats.” Poetry Foundation, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43290/the-second-coming. Accessed 27 March 2023.

'The Myth of Sisyphus' and Existentialism (A2.2)

Name: Rajeshvariba Rana

Roll No: 16

Semester: 2 (Batch 2022-24)

Enrolment No. : 4069206420220023

Paper No: 107

Paper name: The 20th Century Lit. from WWII to the End of the Century

Paper code: 22400

Topic: 'The Myth of Sisyphus' and Existentialism

Submitted to: Smt. S.B. Gardi, Department of English, MKBU

Email Address: rhrana148@gmail.com

'The Myth of Sisyphus' and Existentialism

Albert Camus:

Albert Camus was a French philosopher, writer, and journalist who lived from 1913 to 1960. He was born in Algeria, which was then a French colony, and grew up in poverty. His father died when he was young, and he was raised by his mother and grandmother.

Camus was an excellent student and received a scholarship to study philosophy at the University of Algiers. He began his career as a journalist, working for various newspapers in Algeria and Paris. He also became involved in the French Resistance during World War II, and his experiences during this time influenced his writing and philosophy.

Camus was active in political and social causes in addition to his writing. For a time, he was a member of the French Communist Party, but he eventually lost faith in communism and became a vocal critic of Soviet-style socialism. He also advocated for human rights and spoke out against the use of the death penalty.

Camus died in a car accident in 1960 at the age of 46. He remains an important figure in 20th-century philosophy and literature, and his ideas continue to be studied and debated today.

Best Known works:

→ "The Stranger" (1942) - a novel that tells the story of Meursault, a French Algerian who kills an Arab man and is put on trial.
→ "The Myth of Sisyphus" (1942) - an essay in which Camus introduces his concept of the "absurd" and explores the question of whether life has any meaning or purpose.
→ "The Plague" (1947) - a novel that tells the story of a small town in Algeria that is hit by a deadly epidemic.
→ "The Rebel" (1951) - a philosophical essay in which Camus explores the idea of rebellion and the importance of individual freedom and choice.
→ "The Fall" (1956) - a novel in which a former judge named Jean-Baptiste Clamence reflects on his life and the moral choices he has made.
→ "Caligula" (1944) - a play that explores the theme of power and the corruption it can bring.
→ "The Just Assassins" (1949) - a play that tells the story of a group of revolutionaries who plot to assassinate a Grand Duke.
→ "A Happy Death" (written in 1936, published posthumously in 1971) - a novel that tells the story of a young man named Patrice Mersault who dreams of living an authentic life.

 

These works have had a significant impact on philosophy and literature, and they continue to be widely read and studied today.

Themes :

The Absurd:

Camus defines the absurd as the conflict between the human need for meaning and purpose in life and the inherent meaninglessness and irrationality of the universe. This theme is central to the essay, and Camus uses the story of Sisyphus as a metaphor for the human struggle to find meaning in a meaningless world.

Rebellion:

Camus suggests that although the world may be meaningless, we can rebel against it by creating our own meaning and purpose through acts of creativity, solidarity with others, and the pursuit of personal freedom and dignity. This theme is closely related to the concept of the absurd, as rebellion is seen as a way to overcome the sense of futility and despair that arises from the conflict between human desires and the meaninglessness of the universe.

Acceptance:

Camus argues that the only way to overcome the absurdity of life is to accept it fully and live in the present moment. By doing so, we can find a kind of freedom and happiness that is not dependent on external circumstances or the pursuit of material wealth or success. This theme is related to the idea of rebellion, as acceptance is seen as a way to rebel against the absurdity of life by embracing it fully.

Individualism:

Camus emphasises the importance of individual freedom and choice in the face of the absurdity of life. He suggests that the pursuit of personal dignity and authenticity is more important than external success or conformity to societal norms. This theme is related to the idea of rebellion, as individualism is seen as a way to create meaning and purpose in a world that is fundamentally meaningless.

One of the most influential works of this century, this is a crucial exposition of existentialist thought. Influenced by works such as Don Juan, and the novels of Kafka, these essays begin with a meditation on suicide: the question of living or not living in an absurd universe devoid of order or meaning. With lyric eloquence, Camus posits a way out of despair, reaffirming the value of personal existence, and the possibility of life lived with dignity and authenticity.

The Myth of Sisyphus is a small work, but Camus’s meditation on faith and fate has personally been hugely important in developing my ideas. Writing in the embers of World War II, Camus confronts in The Myth of Sisyphus both the tragedy of recent history and what he sees as the absurdity of the human condition. There is, he observes, a chasm between the human need for meaning and what he calls “the unreasonable silence of the world”. Religion is a means of bridging that chasm, but a dishonest one. “I don’t know if the world has any meaning that transcends it,” he writes. “But I know that I do not know this meaning and that it is impossible for me just now to know it.”

Camus does not know that God does not exist. But he is determined to believe it, because that is the only way to make sense of being human. Humans have to make their own meaning. And that meaning can come only through struggle, even if that struggle appears as meaningless as that of Sisyphus, who, having scorned the gods, was condemned by them to spend eternity in the underworld, forever rolling a rock to the top of a mountain.

The certainties of religion provide false hope, and in so doing undermine our humanity by denying human choice. So do any other false certainties with which we may replace religion. For Camus, religious faith had to be replaced neither with faithlessness, nor with another kind of false certainty, but with a different kind of faith – faith in our ability to live with the predicament of being human. It was a courageous argument, especially in the shadow of the Holocaust. And it is an argument that remains as important today as it was then.

Sisyphus in Greek Mythology :

The Myth of Sisyphus is a story from Greek mythology that explores the human condition of struggle and the search for meaning in life. According to the myth, Sisyphus was a king who was known for his cunning and deceitful nature. He was punished by the gods for his hubris and was forced to push a boulder up a hill for all eternity.

Each time Sisyphus would almost reach the top of the hill, the boulder would roll back down, and he would have to start again. The task was deemed impossible, and Sisyphus was forced to repeat it endlessly. The punishment was meant to teach him the futility of his actions and the importance of humility.

Sisyphus refused to give up despite his seemingly hopeless situation. In the struggle, he found a sense of purpose and used his wits and determination to find ways to make the task more bearable. The Sisyphus myth has come to represent the struggle of human existence and the search for meaning in life, even in the face of seemingly insurmountable obstacles.

Existentialism:

Existentialism is a 20th-century philosophical and literary movement that emphasised individual freedom, choice, and responsibility in the face of life's meaninglessness and absurdity.

Existentialism is fundamentally concerned with fundamental questions of human existence, such as the meaning of life, the nature of death, and the relationship between the individual and society. Existentialist writers and thinkers frequently address these issues through literature, philosophy, and psychology, emphasising the importance of personal experience and subjective interpretation.

The concept of the absurd, which refers to the conflict between human desires and the universe's inherent meaninglessness and irrationality, is a key idea in existentialism. This can result in feelings of despair.

The importance of individual freedom and choice is another central idea in existentialism. Existentialists argue that instead of relying on external values and norms, individuals have the ability and responsibility to create their own meaning and purpose in life.

Existentialism has had a significant influence on literature, philosophy, and psychology, as well as a diverse range of thinkers and writers. Among the most well-known existentialist authors are Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, and Friedrich Nietzsche. Other writers, such as Franz Kafka, Samuel Beckett, and Virginia Woolf, have used existentialist themes in their works.

Existentialism is a multifaceted philosophical and literary movement concerned with the search for meaning and purpose in life, the individual struggle against the absurdity of existence, and the value of individual freedom and choice.

How can one fail to feel the basic relationship of these minds! How can one fail to see that they take their stand around a privileged and bitter moment in which hope has no further place? I want everything to be explained to me or nothing. And the reason is impotent when it hears this cry from the heart. The mind aroused by this insistence seeks and finds nothing but contradictions and nonsense. What I fail to understand is nonsense. The world is populated with such irrationals. The world itself, whose single meaning I do not understand, is but a vast irrational. If one could only say just once: "This is clear," all would be saved. But these men vie with one another in proclaiming that nothing is clear, all is chaos, that all man has is his lucidity and his definite knowledge of the walls surrounding him.

(Words 1650; Images 03)

Work Cited

Camus, Albert. The myth of Sisyphus, and other essays. Edited by Justin O'Brien, translated by Justin O'Brien, Vintage Books, 1991.

Transcendentalism as a Literary Movement (A2.3)

Name: Rajeshvariba Rana
Roll No: 16
Semester: 2 (Batch 2022-24)
Enrolment number: 4069206420220023
Paper No: 108
Paper name: The American Literature
Paper code: 22401
Topic: Transcendentalism as a Literary Movement
Submitted to: Smt. S.B. Gardi, Department of English, MKBU
Email Address: rhrana148@gmail.com

 Transcendentalism as a Literary Movement

A transcendentalism is an approach to philosophy, art, literature, spirituality, and a way of living. A group of writers and other intellectuals started what became known as the "Transcendental Club'' in 1836. Lasting until 1840, these club meetings focused on new ways of thinking and orienting oneself in the world. First and foremost, Transcendentalism emphasises intuition and personal knowledge and resists conformity to social norms. Transcendentalist writers and thinkers believe individuals are inherently good. Everyone has the power to “transcend” the chaos of society and use their own intellect for finding a sense of greater meaning and purpose.

The transcendentalist movement is generally recognized to be the first major watershed in American literary and intellectual history. Pioneered by Emerson, Thoreau, Orestes Brownson, Margaret Fuller, and Bronson Alcott (among others), Transcendentalism provided a springboard for the first distinctly American forays into intellectual culture: religion and religious reform, philosophy, literature, ecology, and spiritualism. This new collection, edited by eminent American literature scholar Joel Myerson, is the first anthology of the period to appear in over fifty years. 

Although Ralph Waldo Emerson denied being a transcendentalist, he is widely regarded as the foremost philosophical proponent of American transcendentalism, followed by Henry David Thoreau. Emerson identified three practices through which we can exchange facts for ideas. The first practice involves idealism, whereby we view the world not as an independent force that can thwart our plans, but rather as a collection of images or representations that we create, making it benign and even beneficial. The second practice involves focusing on moral actions and finding joy in their goodness. The third practice, perhaps the most well-known aspect of transcendentalism, is the contemplation of beauty.

While many of us may naturally engage in these practices without associating them with Emerson, his contemporaries, or the period in American intellectual history when transcendentalism was prominent, we are, in effect, following transcendentalist principles when we seek to enhance our lives by moving away from facts and embracing ideas.

German Influence:

Emerson may have learned about Kant's transcendental idealism from Frederick Henry Hedge (1805-1890), a Unitarian minister who had studied in Germany and was fluent in German philosophy. In 1836, Hedge, Emerson, and George Ripley (1802-1880) formed an informal group called Hedge's Club to stimulate discussion of current philosophical and theological issues. For about seven years, the group met irregularly and grew to include at least a dozen people. It became known as the Transcendental Club. These meetings provided ample opportunity for Hedge to share his knowledge of Kant’s transcendental philosophy with Emerson.

Although they are very different philosophies, Kant's transcendental idealism clearly influenced American transcendentalism. Because the Americans did not preserve Kant's distinction between the transcendent and the transcendental, the philosophies are markedly different. This distinction serves as the foundation for Kant's entire system as presented in the Critique of Pure Reason, but the transcendentalists were not interested in systems or system frameworks. The sentiment behind Kant's words drew them to his philosophy. Kant's influence can be seen in the prevalent sentiment of American transcendentalism. Americans eagerly joined him in praising the rightness of moral action, the beauty of the world, and God's majesty.

British Influence:

The term "transcendental" conjures up images of Kant and the German philosophers he influenced, but German thinkers were not the only ones to influence American transcendentalism. Emerson admired William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, whom he met during a trip to Europe in 1832. Their romanticism enchanted him, and he appears to have passed some of that enchantment on to his friend Thoreau. The British romantics shared Kant's and the American transcendentalists' love of beauty, morality, and God, but the romantics had developed a distinct perspective on our relationship to those realities. This viewpoint was a defining feature of American transcendentalism.

The British romantics saw a lot of goodness and beauty in the world. Simultaneously, they realised that all of that goodness and beauty is flawed. Human beings frequently exemplify great virtues, but this is not always the case. Their selfishness and cruelty can be monstrous at times. The sky, the meadow, and the rose are breathtakingly beautiful, but as time passes their beauty fades. This double vision of the romantics, although it did not betray any facts, nevertheless placed them in the uncomfortable position of both hating and loving the world.

Packer presents Transcendentalism as a living movement, evolving out of such origins as New England Unitarianism and finding early inspiration in European Romanticism. Transcendentalism changed religious beliefs, philosophical ideas, literary styles, and political allegiances. In addition, it was a social movement whose members collaborated on projects and formed close personal ties. Transcendentalism contains vigorous thought and expression throughout, says Packer; only a study of the entire movement can explain its continuing sway over American thought.

Through fresh readings of both the essential Transcendentalist texts and the best current scholarship, Packer conveys the movement's genuine expectations that its radical spirituality not only would lead to personal perfection but also would inspire solutions to such national problems as slavery and disfranchisement. Here is Transcendentalism in whole, with Emerson, Thoreau, and Fuller restored to their place alongside such contemporaries as Bronson Alcott, George Ripley, Jones Very, Theodore Parker, James Freeman Clarke, Orestes Brownson, and Frederick Henry Hedge.

Transcendental literature characteristics:

Although the most famous works in Transcendentalist literature are non-fiction, Transcendentalist literature spanned all genres, from poetry to short fiction, and novels. Here are some key characteristics you will find in Transcendentalist literature:

Psychology of inner experience:

Transcendentalist literature often centres around characters or speakers who engage in introspection and turn their attention inward. These individuals seek to explore their own inner psyche, while also often undertaking an outward exploration. They may do so by disconnecting from society, immersing themselves in nature, living in solitude, or devoting themselves to contemplation. These methods are considered to be classic Transcendentalist approaches to discovering the inner landscape of the individual.

Exaltation of the individual spirit:

Transcendentalist literature exalts the individual spirit and embraces the belief in the innate goodness and purity of the human soul. By rejecting organised religion and mainstream societal conventions, Transcendentalist writers placed great importance on the human spirit as inherently divine. As a result, many Transcendentalist works explore themes such as the nature of God, spirituality, and divinity. These meditations reflect the central role of individualism and the search for inner truth in Transcendentalist literature.

Independence and self-reliance:

Independence and self-reliance are core values of Transcendentalist literature. The movement arose from discontent with prevailing social structures and encouraged individuals to take charge of their own lives rather than relying on external forces. Thus, Transcendentalist works often feature characters or speakers who choose to chart their own course, marching to the beat of their own drum. This emphasis on individualism and self-reliance is a hallmark of Transcendentalist literature

Contemporary Relevance : 

Theories attempting to unveil the essence of the world are intriguing and enlightening, providing insights into the limits of our knowledge. Although the transcendentalists never created a comprehensive theory, their spontaneous musings aimed to reinforce the practices that brought them closer to the good. Despite their inability to ground their practices in a complete theory of absolute reality, their devotion to their practices persisted throughout their lives. The practices of affirming moral action, contemplating beauty, and appreciating the creativity of consciousness are self-standing and do not require theoretical support.

Transcendentalism's practices hold immeasurable value. We often overlook the wonder of awareness and the remarkable products of our imagination. The focus on factual knowledge can obscure our ability to recognize beauty and diminish our appreciation of the rightness of moral action. Practising transcendentalism continually would enable us to view consciousness as an unparalleled wonder, appreciate even the smallest aspects of beauty, and recognize the value of a single moral action. While these practices cannot establish absolute reality, they enrich our experiences and align with the transcendentalists' ultimate goal.

Beauty:

If there is a single practice with which American transcendentalism can be identified, it is contemplation of beauty. Emerson responded to Plato’s theory that beauty, truth, and goodness are one by saying that even so beauty is the best of the three. Children seem to see it radiating from the most ordinary objects to their exquisite delight. Adults sometimes find themselves feeling like children again in its presence. The transcendentalists thought of beauty as eternal, because a mere glimpse of it was enough to make them drop everything and simply take in what they heard or saw with neither motive nor intention. This activity satisfied them so deeply that while they were thus engaged it was as if time stood still.

Emerson attempted to extend the influence of beauty far beyond momentary absorptions, motivated by the tremendous appeal of the former hypothesis. He arrived at the conclusion that everything is beautiful by arguing that beauty stems from purpose. Emerson saw nature as a unified, all-encompassing system governed by immutable moral laws. Everything in such a system serves a purpose in relation to the whole and is rendered beautiful by that relationship. In his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius proposed something similar. He claimed that once the purpose of the foam in ravening beasts' mouths is revealed, it takes on a certain beauty.

The transcendentalists were excellent at stretching their imaginations. When they used this ability to its full potential, they saw an abstract world of interconnected ideas all around them. The allure of that world was so alluring that it blinded them to all external realities. Emerson even stated that there is a certain beauty in a corpse. We can't blame the transcendentalists for wanting to live forever in the presence of the beautiful, but the feats of imagination that they used to create an ideal world couldn't last forever. The transcendentalists were drawn to the beauty of ideas, but they also knew they had to navigate a world full of stubborn facts. We can see it once more.

Idealism:

The American transcendentalists' idealism, like their morality and love of beauty, took the form of practises before becoming, as an afterthought, a sort of theory. Emerson stood with his head between his legs, noting how this revealed a very different reality. His long country rambles instilled in him a profound sense of nature's lawfulness and rationality. His raging passions roiled within him often manifested themselves in the form of an essay or a poem or poem. Looking at the world from different perspectives, delighting in the patterns that nature creates, and writing poetry or prose are idealistic practices in the sense that they prioritise consciousness. 

Morality : 

Emerson was often criticised for not being an enthusiastic reformer, and there was some truth to these accusations. While his contemporaries in the US and Europe were eager to push for moral progress, Emerson was more inclined to be a scholar. According to him, the role of scholars is to cultivate goodness in others, but this requires a certain ability to see the bigger picture of things, which can only be gained through some distance from the fray of action. Emerson was a visionary and a poet at heart, rather than a man of action. While he empathised with the ideals of reformers, he found it uncomfortable to actively engage in reforms, as it was not his natural calling.

Conclusion : 

Transcendentalism emerged as a literary and philosophical movement in the mid-nineteenth century, characterised by its focus on intuition, the individual's relationship with nature and divinity, self-reliance, and nonconformity. The movement's most prominent writers were Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, who were close friends. Another important figure was Margaret Fuller, who paved the way for early feminist writers and thinkers. Essential Transcendentalist texts include Emerson's "Self-Reliance" and Thoreau's "Walden." Transcendentalism had a significant influence on many writers and genres in American literature, including Walt Whitman and Jon Krakauer.

(Words 2040; Images 02)

Works Cited

Brodrick, Michael. “American Transcendentalism.” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, https://iep.utm.edu/am-trans/. Accessed 30 March 2023.

Myerson, Joel, editor. Transcendentalism: A Reader. Oxford University Press, USA, 2000.

Packer, Barbara L. The Transcendentalists. University of Georgia Press, 2007.

The Archetypal Criticism by Northrop Frye (A2.4)

Name: Rajeshvariba Rana
Roll No: 16
Semester: 2 (Batch 2022-24)
Enrolment number: 4069206420220023
Paper No: 109
Paper name: Literary Theory and Criticism and Indian Aesthetic
Paper code: 22402
Topic: The Archetypal Criticism by Northrop Frye
Submitted to: Smt. S.B. Gardi, Department of English, MKBU
Email Address: rhrana148@gmail.com

The Archetypal Criticism by Northrop Frye

Northrop Frye:

Northrop Frye (1912-1991) was a Canadian literary critic and literary theorist who made significant contributions to the study of English literature. He is considered one of the most important literary theorists of the 20th century and is particularly known for his work on myth and symbolism.

Frye's approach to literary criticism is interdisciplinary, drawing on elements of philosophy, psychology, anthropology, and mythology. He believed that literature is a reflection of the human experience and that it can help us better understand ourselves and the world around us.

Frye is best known for his book "Anatomy of Criticism" (1957), which is considered a landmark in literary theory. In this work, Frye argues that all literature can be classified into four basic genres: romance, tragedy, comedy, and irony/satire. He also introduced the concept of the "archetypal critic," a universal set of symbols and myths that underlie all literature.

Frye's other notable works include "Fearful Symmetry" (1947), which explores the relationship between William Blake's poetry and his religious beliefs, and "The Great Code" (1982), which examines the Bible as a work of literature and explores the role of myth and metaphor in religious language.

Frye's work has had a significant impact on literary theory and criticism, and his ideas continue to be studied and debated by scholars today.

Frye says in the “Introduction” to the Third Essay:

“In this book we are attempting to outline a few of the grammatical rudiments of literary expression, and the elements of it that correspond to such musical elements as tonality, simple and {59}compound rhythm, canonical imitation, and the like. . . . We are suggesting that the resources of verbal expression are limited, if that is the word, by the literary equivalents of rhythm and key, though that does not mean, any more than it means in music, that its resources are artistically exhaustible.”

Rhythm and key are Frye’s metaphors for the conventions of literature; and the particular conventions he explores in the Third Essay are archetypes.1

Frye draws another analogy between literature and the pictorial arts. He notes that when we discuss a painting, we frequently differentiate between its design or stylization and its content or subject matter. These two categories are comparable to the structural principles of literature, and we are more capable of recognizing them when we view the painting from a distance that separates us from the realistic details of its content. Frye states that "when we look at a picture," we can better understand the relationship between design and content in literature.

“We may stand close to it and analyses the details of brushwork and palette knife. This corresponds roughly to the rhetorical analysis of the new critics in literature. At a little distance back, the design comes clearer into view, and we study rather the content represented: this is the best distance for realistic Dutch pictures, for example, where we are in a sense reading the picture. The further back we go, the more conscious we are of the organising design. At a great distance from, say, a Madonna, we can see nothing but the archetype of the Madonna, a large centripetal blue mass with a contrasting point of interest at its center.”

The Mythos of Archetypal Imagery:

The Third Essay's bipolar structure is built on the dianoia-mythos distinction, as we've previously discussed. Using Frye's musical analogy once more, the literary equivalent of key is the structural pattern of imagery, while the narrative pattern of poetry corresponds to musical rhythm. In the latter half of Frye's theory of myths, movement or process is the central category. Frye's primary objective is to reveal the archetypal imagery structures from the perspective of mythos. Movement, a crucial characteristic of mythos, has already been hinted at in the examination of analogical imagery, where there is a dialectic inclination for imagery to gravitate toward the apocalyptic-demonic continuum's poles. This is a type of process. However, cyclical movement is an even more fundamental type, as we will now explore.

The basic shape of this movement is cyclical, showing “the alternation of success and decline, effort and repose, life and death which is the rhythm of process”

The several cycles, Frye observes four main phases:

Seasons of the year:  Spring      Summer     Fall          Winter

Periods of the day:    Morning   Noon         Evening   Night

Aspects of water:      Rains        Fountains  Rivers      Sea, snow

Periods of life:           Youth       Maturity    Old age    Death

Frye proposes that Western culture can be divided into four distinct periods: the Medieval Age, the Renaissance, the Eighteenth Century, and the Modern Period. This fourfold division has significant implications for Frye's argument's overall structure. Essentially, the cyclical paradigm is situated within the order of nature, while the dialectical paradigm progresses from the order of nature towards or into the higher apocalyptic realm. Schematically, this distinction is critical in understanding the different periods of Western culture as well as the overarching themes in Frye's work.

Frye's taxonomy of archetypes is composed of a quadrantal and cyclic pattern of the four mythoi, as well as a dialectical arrangement of the mythical and realistic worlds. However, this provides only a skeletal outline for his theory. The mythos of archetypes is a complex and elaborately conceived section of the Anatomy, comprising practically one-fourth of the entire book despite accounting for only one-half of Frye's theory of archetypes. Its elaborate design is largely due to the theory of phases, which refers to the various literary structures that can be identified in any one mythos. Frye has identified six phases for each of the pre generic mythoi, resulting in a total of twenty-four separate structures.

The argument becomes more intricate due to the merging of adjacent mythoi. Frye explains that "If we think of our experience of these mythoi, we shall realise that they form two opposed pairs. Tragedy and comedy contrast rather than blend, and so do romance and irony, the champions respectively of the ideal and actual. On the other hand, comedy blends insensibly into satire at one extreme and into romance at the other; romance may be comic or tragic; tragic extends from high romance to bitter and ironic realism". Furthermore, it should be noted that irony can also merge imperceptibly into tragedy and comedy, representing a fourth potential relationship. We will explore these connections in greater detail in the following discussion.

“The four mythoi that we are dealing with, comedy, romance, tragedy, and irony, may . . . be seen as four aspects of a central unifying myth. Ago or conflict is the basis or archetypal theme of romance, the radical of romance being a sequence of marvelous adventures. Pathos or catastrophe, whether in triumph or in defeat, is the archetypal theme of tragedy. Sparagmos, or the sense that heroism and effective action are absent, disorganized or foredoomed to defeat, and that confusion and anarchy reign over the world, is the archetypal theme of irony and satire. Anagnorisis, or the recognition of a newborn society rising in triumph around a still somewhat mysterious hero and his bride, is the archetypal theme of comedy. ”

Moving on to the second mythos, romance, the characters tend to be less complex since they are typically aligned either for or against the quest. Frye notes that "If they assist it, they are idealised as simply gallant or pure; if they obstruct it they are caricatured as simply villainous or cowardly". Therefore, these characters follow the dialectical pattern of the plot structure they serve. Frye compares this opposition to the black and white pieces on a chessboard, with the white pieces corresponding to the eirons of comedy whose role is to ensure the success of the quest. Examples of white pieces include the hero, the potential bride, and the wise old man or magician who oversees and often controls the action. The counterpart of the comic amazon is any character who seeks to prevent the hero from achieving his goal. These characters are typically villains and can take on various forms, including evil magicians, witches, traitors, monsters, and so on.

The similarities between second-phase tragedy and romance are based on various characteristics, such as the stage in the life of the hero, the archetype of Adam and Eve, the vision of innocence or inexperience, and the green- and golden-world imagery. Frye uses these criteria to establish parallel relations between the phases, either by appealing to a single criterion, like the size of the social unit in sixth-phase comedy and romance, or to a wide range of criteria.

Although many of the categories Frye uses are borrowed, the Third Essay deals with principles that have long been familiar in the history of criticism, such as imagery, plot, character, theme, and mood. What sets Frye's theory of myths apart is the ordered and schematic structure in which it is presented. Frye himself has emphasised this point in his recent comments on the Anatomy, stating that he sees the book as primarily schematic rather than systematic. According to Frye, this is because poetic thinking is itself schematic, and the Anatomy attempts to provide a schema that can serve as a guide to practical criticism.

Frye's use of the music analogy is similar to Claude Lévi-Strauss, another mythographer who also employs musical analogies to explain his arguments. There are notable parallels between Frye's framework for analysing archetypal forms and Lévi-Strauss's approach to studying myth. Both approaches harken back to the fundamental principles of mythos and dianoia.

Carl Gustav Jung:

Carl Gustav Jung (26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology.

Archetypal criticism draws heavily on the work of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, who argued that archetypes are inherited from our collective unconscious, a shared reservoir of ideas, memories, and images that all humans possess.

Jung was originally a follower of Sigmund Freud. The relationship eventually fractured over Jung's criticism of Freud's emphasis on sexuality during development, which led Jung to develop his own psychoanalytic approach known as analytical psychology.

Archetypes are universal, inborn models of people, behaviours, and personalities that play a role in influencing human behaviour. Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung's theory suggested that these archetypes were archaic forms of innate human knowledge passed down from our ancestors.1

In Jungian psychology, these archetypes represent universal patterns and images that are part of the collective unconscious. Jung believed that we inherit these archetypes much in the way we inherit instinctive patterns of behaviour.

Contained within this lowest level of the unconscious are what Jung called the archetypes.

The collective unconscious man is linked not only with the past of the human species , but with the long stretch of organic evolution , a deduction borne out by the fact that contained within the present human brain are three distinct brains : the reptilian brain ; the paleomammalian brain ; and our present brain , the neomammalian.

According to Jung, the ego represents the conscious mind, and the personal unconscious contains memories—including those that have been suppressed.

All the most powerful ideas in history go back to archetypes.

Conclusion:

The theories of Frye and Jung provide us with significant insights into the significance of archetypes in literature and culture. By examining archetypal patterns and symbols, we can acquire a more profound comprehension of the universal human experiences that shape our existence.

(Words 1872; Images 04)

Works Cited

Mueller, Carl R. “Jungian Analysis.” The Drama Review: TDR, vol. 22, no. 3, 1978, pp. 73–86. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1145189.

Adler, Gerhard, and R. F.C. Hull. Collected Works of C.G. Jung: Structure & Dynamics of the Psyche. Edited by Gerhard Adler, second ed., vol. 8, Princeton, 1970.

Denham, Robert D. “Northrop Frye and Critical Method: Theory of Genres.” macblog, https://macblog.mcmaster.ca/fryeblog/critical-method/theory-of-genres.html. Accessed 28 March 2023.

Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 2000.

Leach, Edmund, editor. The Structural Study of Myth and Totemism. Routledge, 2010.

Artistic Movement: Dadaism and Surrealism (A2.5)

Name: Rajeshvariba Rana
Roll No: 16
Semester: 2 (Batch 2022-24)
Enrolment number: 4069206420220023
Paper No: 110A
Paper name: History of English Literature from 1900 to 2000
Paper code: 22403
Topic: Artistic Movement: Dadaism and Surrealism
Submitted to: Smt. S.B. Gardi, Department of English, MKBU
Email Address: rhrana148@gmail.com

Artistic Movement: Dadaism and Surrealism

The study of the avant-garde movements of Dada and Surrealism provides a fresh take on their ongoing impact on contemporary art. He delves into the many debates that surround these movements, from the deification of the Marquis de Sade in Surrealism to issues of quality and the use of the "readymade." Hopkins also examines the international scope of these movements, highlighting their presence in cities like Zurich, New York, and Paris, as well as their varied use of media, such as collage, painting, and film. Throughout the book, Hopkins compares and contrasts the aesthetics of Dada and Surrealism, exploring their respective preoccupations with the body-as-mechanism and the eroticized body. The Very Short Introductions series from Oxford University Press offers readers a concise and accessible way to engage with complex subjects.

Dadaism:

Art covers virtually everything about the world, both living and nonliving. Above all, it is the means of expressing one’s thoughts, beliefs, feelings or perceptions through creative prowess or skill exhibited in painting, writing, music, dancing and even communication.

Origin of Dadaism :

The term “dada” was invented by the Roman writer, Tristan Tzara (1896–1963) at Hugo Ball’s Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, during one of the meetings held by a group of artists in 1916.

“Dada” is a colloquial French word which means “hobby-horse."

Dadaism as a movement began during the early hours of the 1910s.

Artists of this movement through their works ridiculed the meaningless and baselessness of the modern world. Due to the “controversial” nature of Dadaism, it was seen as an art movement that is against the standard and norms that society stands for.

One major factor that facilitated the start of Dadaism was World War 1 between 1914 – 1918.

The first World War cost the lives of millions of people, with millions wounded. The traumatic effect of the first World War is the loss of reality by Europe as stated in the words of Dickerman: “World War I produced a collapse of confidence in the rhetoric—if not the principles—of the culture of rationality that had prevailed in Europe since the Enlightenment.” This loss of reality gave way to confusion.

What is Dadaism:

To simply put, Dadaism is an art form. It is an art movement. The definition of Dadaism revolves around the incidents that occurred during its origin. It is a movement because it is an art form spearheaded and adopted by a group of artists with a similar philosophy and style at a particular period.

Every art movement has a focus. Dadaism is not an exception.

As a movement, Dadaism opposes the surge or the uprising of capitalism.

“When the artist finds himself he is lost. The fact that he has succeeded in never finding himself is regarded by Max Ernst as his only lasting achievement”. – Max Ernst

Key Ideas of Dadaism :

Dadaism, as a movement, has three basic ideas – Spontaneity, Negation, and Absurdity.

These three ideas express Dadaism as an art that is creatively anarchical.

SPONTANEITY :

This idea is of the view that art will be meaningful and worthwhile if and only if it is spontaneous. Therefore, it emphasises on the keen relationship that must exist between an artist and his works.

The beauty of an artwork is not something to be judged by the system, rather, it is a subjective judgement of the artist. This is why, Tristran Tzara even wrote that literature is never beautiful because beauty itself is dead.

Hence, beauty should be left as a private affair to the artist.

Spontaneity makes appeal largely to the concept of individuality. Spontaneity is Creativity.

NEGATION :

This idea aims at contrasting or negating art conventions and establishment through the spread of demoralisation. Thus, the idea sees no line of difference between the moral standard of goodness or badness.

Good is in no way different from bad. It sees everything with one view: as being irrelevant. Nothing is relevant. Even man is of no importance. This idea sees the relevance of everything as being imaginary and unreal.

ABSURDITY :

This is perhaps the best idea that captures the framework of Dadaism.

Dadaists employed absurdity as a weapon to attack elites who were perceived to support the war.

Several factors influenced the start of Dadaism. Concepts such as expressionism and futurism are some of these factors.

DADA ARTISTS :

Dada artists are especially known for their use of ” readymade.”

“Readymade” is the artistic manipulation of normal everyday objects by the artist and then presented as art.

Ready-made triggered questions pertaining to the creation of art, its meaning, what it stands for and its relevance in the society. Furthermore, Dadaism paved the way for the ushering in of Surrealism, another modern art movement.

There are many important Dada artists. who have articulated the definition of Dadaism. Some of them are:

1) Marcel Duchamp (1887 – 1968). His readymades included a humorous and cheap reproduction of Mona Lisa with a moustache and goatee, the fountain and a bottle rack.

2) Tristan Tzara (1896–1963, a poet, painter and performer artist.)

3) Marcel Janco (1895 -1984, his ready-made was “bishop dress.”)

4) Hugo Ball (1886 -1947, his readymades were “Karawane,” and the “Dada manifesto”)

5) Emmy Hennings (1885 -1948, his readymades were “itinerant poet” and “cabaret chanteuse").

FIVE TOP DADAISM WORKS :

FOUNTAIN:

  

This art piece was produced by Marcel Duchamp in 1917. Many Historians affirm it to be an iconic symbol of twentieth-century art.

   

LHOOQ :

This art piece was also produced by Marcel. It is a ready-made reproduction of Leonardo’s “Mona Lisa.” Marcel added a moustache to the portrait and inscribed the title “LHOOQ.”

THE SPIRIT OF OUR TIME :

A Dada art piece produced by Raoul Hausmann, a German artist.

UNTITLED (SQUARES ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE LAWS OF CHANCE, 1917)

The Untitled Dada art was produced by Jeans (Han) Arp in 1917.

THROUGH THE LAST WEIMAR BEER BELLY CULTURAL EPOCH OF GERMANY (1919).

A Dada artwork produced by a German woman named Hannah Höch. It is considered one of the greatest works in Dada arts.

THE RISE OF NEO-DADAISM:

Dadaism as art, despite its seeming offensive and artless nature, is funny and humorous. It spread to many other parts of Europe after its start in Zurich.

Although, it eventually declined at some point, because right from the onset, it was obvious that it cannot hold on for long.

However, Dadaism opened the door for a new concept in modern art. This new concept is Neo-Dadaism. It is a “new” form of Dadaism.

Neo-Dadaism is an art movement with artistic manifestations with audio, visual and literary concepts. It has strong ties with Dadaism. It shares similar thought, method, intent, and technique with artworks in Dadaism. Its aim is to bridge the gap that exists between art and daily experiences. Neo-dada employs the use of materials that are modern and also absurdist in contrast.

Neo-Dadaism takes its lead largely from the works of Marcel Duchamp and Kurt Schwitters. It totally denies the traditional conceptions of aesthetics.

Dadaism – A Living Art

Dadaism is an artwork that outlives its time.

Its relevance can still be felt in the world of art, especially the internet. Memes that are used as communication cues stem from dadaism. Fashion is not left out. Dadaism has its touch there.

In music, literature, sculpture, painting and even technology, Dadaism still thrives and lives on. Despite its seemingly meaningless state, it found a way of nesting itself in the hearts of people.

This shows the power and awe that Dadaism carries. Undoubtedly, Dadaism is not just an art, but it is an art with a soul, a living art.

Surrealism:

The poet Guilliame Apollinaire first coined the term “Surreal” in reference to the idea of an independent reality, existing “beneath” our conscious reality.

But the Surrealist movement initially surfaced in 1924 when French poet André Breton published his “Manifesto of Surrealism,” influenced by the theories and writings on the unconscious mind by psychologist Sigmund Freud, the groundbreaking studies of Carl Jung, and the early 20th-century Dada movement.

While Surrealism started as a literary movement in the prose and poetry of Breton and others, visual artists such as Giorgio de Chirico, Pablo Picasso, Francis Picabia, and Marcel Duchamp embraced Surrealism and were recognized in Breton’s 1925 publication, “La Révolution Surréaliste.”

Image: Minotaure Aveugle Guidé par une fillette, I” (1934). Etching from Picasso’s Vollard Suite.

Man Ray, Observatory Time—The Lovers, 1932-34/1970, coloured lithograph after an oil on canvas, 68 × 104 cm (dimensions of original painting shown by Barr, now lost:99 × 251.5 cm). Collection Clo and Marcel Fleiss, Paris.

Soichi Sunami, installation view of “Fantastic Art, Dada, Surrealism.” Showing, left to right: The Surrealist Poets Paul Éluard, André Breton, Tristan Tzara, René Crevel, Benjamin Péret, René Char by Valentine Hugo, 1935; Puzzle of Autumn by Salvador Dalí, 1935; Daily Torments by Richard Oelze, 1934; and Observatory Time—The Lovers by Man Ray, 1932–34 (top centre). New York, The Museum of Modern Art Archives.

"Intelligent and exact, should be studied by everyone who seeks enlightenment about the contemporary mind." Intelligent and exact, this book should be studied by everyone who seeks enlightenment about the contemporary mind. Like it or not, surrealism cannot be ignored in an overview of 20th-century thought.

Conclusion:

Dadaism and Surrealism were two avant-garde art movements that emerged in Europe in the early 20th century.

Dadaism was a reaction against the established art traditions and societal norms of the time, characterised by its anarchic and irrational nature. Its artists sought to challenge the meaning and value of art itself, often using nonsensical and absurdist techniques to create works that were deliberately shocking and provocative.

Surrealism, on the other hand, was a more focused and intentional movement that sought to explore the realm of the unconscious mind and the power of the imagination. Its artists sought to express the irrational and illogical aspects of the human psyche, often using dreamlike imagery and symbolism to create works that were both visually stunning and psychologically evocative.

Both Dadaism and Surrealism were united in their rejection of traditional artistic and cultural values, as well as their embrace of experimentation, individualism, and freedom of expression. They have had a profound influence on the development of modern and contemporary art, inspiring generations of artists to push the boundaries of what is considered art and what is possible in the creative process.

(Words 1721; Images 08)

Works Cited

Helmreich, Anne L., et al., editors. Networking Surrealism in the USA: Agents, Artists, and the Market. arthistoricum.net, 2019. Accessed 31 March 2023.

Hopkins, David. Dada and Surrealism: A Very Short Introduction. OUP Oxford, 2004.

Nadeau, Maurice. The History of Surrealism. Translated by Richard Howard, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1989.